T5 IfHl 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 



VOL. VIII. 



DEC. 11>. 1910 



[Entered February 14, 1902, at Urbana, Illinois, as second-class matter 
under Act of Congress of July 16, LS94.J 



Department of Household Science 

Some Points in Choosing 
Textiles 



By 



Charlotte M. Gibbs, M. A. 




PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
URBANA-CHAMPAKiN 



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SOME POINTS IN CHOOSING TEXTILES 

In the past century a great change has come about in the 
position of the woman in the home, which has very vitally af- 
fected her relation to the textile industries. In the early days 
in this country nearly every woman produced the clothing for 
herself and family, also the household linens, from the raising 
of the sheep or flax to the finished product. Now all is changed ; 
with the introduction of ready-made suits and other garments 
even the sewing is rapidly going from the home, while the manu- 
facture of cloth is a forgotten art. 

In olden times the quality of home-spun and woven ma- 
terial was the best possible to be obtained from the materials and 
methods known. Woolen cloth was all wool, and linen cloth 
was not adulterated with starch, or half cotton. Honest and 
durable materials were the rule of the day. 

With the introduction of machinery and the factory system 
came keen competition. Modern discoveries, chemical and other- 
wise have increased the possibilities of cotton, linen, silk, and 
wool so that now it is difficult to recognize the original fiber in 
some of the materials sold. 

Thus on the one hand the field of textile knowledge has 
grown very much, while on the other hand the knowledge of 
women, concerning textile fabrics has decreased, since they are 
no longer the makers of cloth, nor do they always gain a knowl- 
edge of its characteristics through the making of garments. The 
result has been that women depend more and more on the word 
of clerks, who are often as ignorant as themselves, until by pain- 
ful experience the buyers learn some of the things to be avoided. 

As cost of living increases, and demands upon the family 
purse increase, it is more and more important that the w^oman 
of the household should know how to spend the family income 
most economically. Since from ten to twenty percent of this 
income is spent for clothing and house furnishing, it is imperative 
that more thought and careful study should be put upon this 
branch of household economy. The object of this bulletin, is to 
give some bits of information about textile fibers, their manufac- 
ture and adulteration, which may help in gaining that judgment 
in buying essential to every woman. 

Certain adulterations and devices of the modern manufac- 
turer are so skillfully concealed as to be detected only by the use 



■' o z /] 



4 

of chemical tests, or the high power microscope. With these this 
bulletin will not deal, but only with those qualities and adulter- 
ations which may be detected without the aid of laboratory 
equipment. Much of course may be learned by experience, but 
it seems better to save time and money by knowing beforehand 
what is to be demanded, what guarded against. 

Each one of the common materials used for textile fabrics, 
cottonj linen, wool and silk, has its characteristics, each its 
definite uses. Certain peculiarities in physical or chemical nature 
make each fiber peculiarly adapted to certain uses, but so long as 
these general qualities are maintained the variety of materials 
produced from these fibers may be enormous. Combinations of 
fibers in one material, adulteration with cheaper fibers, or with 
starches or metallic salts may serve to reduce the cost, and yet . 
the purpose of the material may be fulfilled. For certain pur- 
poses the materials may be used interchangeably. 

COTTON 

Cotton is cheap and very plentiful. It has short, flat fibers, 
Avith a spiral twist, thus giving elasticity and the possibility of 
"being spun into fine thread. Being in itself very useful and inex- 
pensive and capable of replacing to a certain extent, any other 
fiber, it is used in very large quantities the world over, and is 
manufactured into a great variety of materials. The quality of 
these materials depends on the strength of the fibers, the fineness 
or coarseness of material, the weave, the color and design, and 
the adulterations. 

Cotton being cheapest is not adulterated with any of the 
other fibers mentioned, wdien the material is to be sold as cotton 
cloth, but it can be made to appear heavier by the addition of 
mixtures called sizing. Starches, gums, dextrine, glue, china 
clay as well as other ingredients in varying proportions consti- 
tute this sizing which may add a large percent to the weight of the 
cloth. The spaces between the threads are filled up, and a good 
finish is given to the cloth, although the wearing quality is not 
increased. If present in large quantities the cloth is greatly 
reduced in weight and firmness after the first washing. 

Adulterations of this kind can be detected by the feeling, a 
large quantity imparting a harshness to the material. In very 
thin fabrics the sizing may often be detected by holding the cloth 
up to the light when the starch shows between the threads. 



Washing or thorough boiHiig of a sample will show the amount 
of sizing present. 

Another method of adulterating cotton is shown in certain 
kinds of dotted swiss. A good swiss has thread dots woven or 
embroidered in the cloth. Fig. lA shows a piece of material sold 
at the price of a good swiss. but in this case the dots are merely 
a heavy paste, printed onto the cloth. Fig. iB shows the result 
of continued washing, where the dots have disappeared, and Fig. 
iC, the result of ironing with a hot iron, which turned the spots 
brown before the cloth itself is harmed. 

Mercerized cotton is a cloth produced by the action of a 
strong alkali on cotton fiber rinsed under tension. It is a strong, 
attractive material, with good wearing qualities. An imitation of 
this may be made by the action of very heavy and very hot cylin- 
ders on ordinary cotton cloth. The mercerized cloth has a high 
luster which it retains after many washings while the imitation 
loses its luster with the first washing. 

Sometimes cotton cloth which has been on the market for 
some time is weakened by the action of the chemicals used in 
bleaching, dyeing or in the sizing. This may be easily detected 
by tearing the cloth. 

Standard cotton materials such as muslins, organdies, per- 
cales, calicoes, sheetings, dififer only in the weight of the material, 
fineness of thread, hardness of twist and method of finish. Ging- 
hams have the thread dyed before weaving and fancy weaves are 
frequently used. Duck, denim, and some other heavy materials 
have very hard twisted threads and are frequently woven with 
a twill. Silkolene is a trade name for a fine cotton cloth with a 
silky finish given after the cloth is woven. 

Mercerized cottons make lustrous materials as poplin, imita- 
tion pongee and numerous attractive house furnishing materials. 

India "linon" is entirely cotton, with a fleecy surface on the 
wrong side, as is "outing flannel" and "canton flannel". 

Many "tussahs", "voiles" and "economy linens" and other 
materials with rather deceptive names are cotton materials made 
to imitate silk, wool or linen. 

LINEN 

Linen was formerly the most important vegetable fiber, and 
-was commonly used for all household purposes. Of late years 
it has been largely replaced by cotton with which it mav be com- 



B 



C 



pared although there are still uses for which we demand linen, 
and others for which we prefer linen to cotton. 

The linen fiber is long, smooth and quite lustrous, when 
spun into a thread. It is very strong and there are not so many 
fuzzy ends as are found in cotton. Cloth made from it is not only 
lustrous and rich looking, but because of its smoothness stays 
clean longer than cotton. The snowy whiteness of linen obtained 
with some difficulty in bleaching is quite permanent, and since 
the fiber takes dyes with difficulty and parts with them quite 
readily, it also does not retain stains as persistently as cotton does. 

Linen is much more expensive than cotton, and when 
linen prices are paid linen should be demanded. Since the two 
fibers are rather hard to distinguish, especially when 
heavily starched and given a good finish, it is quite easy to de- 
ceive the buyer. "Linen" collars are frequently largely cotton, 
"linen" handkerchiefs may not have a thread of linen, as is apt 
to be the case with rather inexpensive embroidered handkerchiefs, 
and table "linen" may be mercerized cotton, cotton and linen, or 
even ordinary cotton. 

To distinguish linen from cotton, examine the threads care- 
fully ; cotton is made up of short fibers which project from the 
surface of the thread, and become fuzzy when the thread is 
rubbed between the fingers ; when broken, cotton has a tufted end, 
while the linen fibers break more unevenly and leave a more 
pointed end. The linen thread should be stronger than the cot- 
ton ; it has more luster and is usually more uneven. Some kinds 
of linen have flat threads, but cotton is frequently finished in 
imitation of -flat thread linen. 

The old test of moistening the finger and putting it under 
the cloth is not always a sure one, as the moisture will not^ come 
through a heavy linen, or one with much starch in it, and it will 
come through a sheer, tightly twisted cotton. A better test is^ to 
put a drop of olive oil on the cloth and press between blotting 
papers. The linen becomes more transparent than the cotton. 

There is a peculiar leathery feel about good table linen, which 
cotton will not give, and the luster is different although the dif- 
ference is hard to describe. 

The typical weaves used for linens, are as follows: The 
damask, satin or sateen weave used for table linens and towels 
is especially good for the former because of the very smooth 
lustrous surface it affords, but not so good for towels as it does 
not absorb moisture very readily, although it is very attractive. 



8 

Huck, an uneven weave, giving a good surface for the absorp- 
tion of water, makes splendid towels, and decorated with designs 
in damask weave may be very handsome. Many linens in plain 
weaves are available for clothing, embroidery, etc., while the 
coarse Russian crashes are becoming quite popular for decorative 
purposes. 

The texture of linen is such that the heavier kinds hang well 
m folds, lie flat on a table, and are very artistic for many pur- 
poses. 

WOOL 

Wool, the second fiber in amount used for clothing, is an 
animal fiber and differs greatly from the vegetable fibers dis- 
cussed. Wool from the sheep's back differs from hair of goats 
or other animals in several ways. Wool is very curly, and pos- 
sesses a scaly structure in a much more marked degree than hair, 
in which the external scales lie flat. The surface of wool has 
sometimes been compared to a pine cone, or the scales of a fish, 
although these two are quite different. The scales on the wool 
fiber when moist and warm stand up, more as the pine cone, 
and, when cold and dry or cold and moist, lie flat. This peculiar 
structure of the surface of the wool fibers gives them the prop- 
erty of felting, or matting very closely together. Wool is also 
quite elastic, although it has not great strength. 

Since the demand for woolen cloth far exceeds the supply 
of new wool there are many devices for making the supply go a 
long way, and consequently many methods for deceiving the 
buyer. In adulterating a material the manufacturer seeks a 
material cheaper than the fiber he wishes to adulterate, one 
which can be concealed readily. Wool when combined with the 
cheaper cotton fiber makes a material which wears well, but does 
not keep its shape as well as all wool cloth, is less warm, and 
should of course, receive a lower price than all wool. 

Because of the felting property of wool it is quite possible 
to conceal a good deal of cotton under the surface of the woolen 
cloth, and when the fibers are mixed before the threads are spun 
the task of detecting them becomes doubly difficult. 

WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS 

Two classes of cloth are manufactured from wool. Woolens 
are made usually of short wool carded and spun into yarn in 
which the threads lie in all directions. This is woven into cloth 



which usually has the surface heavily felted, so that all of the 
intersections of threads in weaving are covered. Here then is 
splendid opportunity for adulteration, since cotton or poor wool 
may be covered up by the surface felting. 

WORSTED 

The other class is made from longer staple wool, combed, 
and drawn until the fibers are parallel, then hard twisted. When 
woven the ends of the threads do not project on the surface, and 
the finish is not intended to cover the weave, hence, it is more 
difficult to adulterate unless entire cotton threads are woven with 
the worsted, and these are more easily detected than a mixture 
of cotton and wool, or shoddy in woolen cloth. Common ex- 
amples of woolens are flannels, broadcloth and Venetian cloth; of 
worsteds are serge, challie, men's suitings and voile. Mohair is 
a worsted cloth woven of the wool of the Angora goat, with a 
warp usually of cotton or silk. 

The most reliable tests for a mixture of cotton and wool are 
chemical or microscopic ones, but as these are not practical for 
the average buyer others must be sought. Wool has luster, and 
"kinks" ; the ends of the threads are stiff and look rather wiry. 
When a sample is carried home burning will serve to distinguish 
between the two. Wool burns slowly, chars, has an odor of 
burnt feathers, goes out easily, and leaves a crisp ash ; cotton 
burns quickly with a flame, with little odor and leaves no ash. 

A little practice in breaking the threads will help one to dis- 
tinguish between the two ; the difference is not one that can be 
easily explained, but the experienced housewife knows it well. 

Fig. 2A shows a sample of all wool cloth, of the class of 
worsteds which cost seventy-five cents a yard. Fig. 2B, a sample 
of cloth of the same price, called by the clerk, all wool, but which 
on examination was found to have only four threads of wool to 
every twelve threads of cotton. Fig. 2C shows this same cloth 
with the wool removed by a strong alkali, caustic potash, leav- 
ing the cotton. Fig. 2D shows the wool left when the cotton has 
been ravelled out, or has been removed by a strong acid solution. 

Fig. 3 shows a sample of mohair in which the wool has been 
partly removed, and the cotton warp is left. In this case the 
price is not high, and because of the character of the cloth the 
mixture is a good one, light, smooth, and clean. This cloth is 
not sold for all wool, so is not considered adulterated. 



lO 




II 



SHODDY 



As has been said before the demand for woolen goods is so 
much greater than the supply that it is necessary to resort to 
various measures to increase the supply of cloth. One method is 
to use the wool over and over again. Rags are bought up by the 
rag man, sold to the larger dealer, again to the "shoddy" manu- 
facturer who cleans them, sorts them, tears them to pieces, using 
the best all-wool rags to produce fibers, which are respun and 
again woven either separately, if of very good quality, or mixed 
with new wool or cotton. Such a material is warm, looks well 
for a time, and has its place, but must not be bought for new 
wool, or demand the price of good woolen cloth. This industry 
is enormous and shoddy is often found in expensive novelty ma- 
terials as well as in cheap "all-wool" cloth. Because of the short- 
ness of the fibers it may be detected readily, when used alone, but 
in combination with good wool it is more difficult. 

One class of shoddy consists of very short fibers, clippings 
from the mills, which are worked into the surface of a felted 
cloth after it is woven. These short fibers after a time work out, 
and are found in the bottoms of coats, inside the linings, etc., 
leaving the surface of the cloth threadbare. 

Fig. 4 shows a piece of shoddy cloth, sold for all wool at 
fifty cents a yard. This cloth would be warm, but does not look 
as well as more expensive cloth, and will not wear as long as 
new wool. There is some cotton mixed with the wool before 
spinning, therefore it is difticult to detect. 

STL.K 

Silk is frequently knowm as the fiber or luxury. It is the 
most expensive to cultivate, the most beautiful and the strongest 
fiber. Since it is the most expensive fiber to buy, and the demand 
for it is so great, the temptations to adulterate are also naturally 
very great. The long, strong, lustrous silk fiber which bleaches 
and dyes beautifully, and is fine as a spider's web is not to be 
duplicated. The best grade or "reeled silk" is taken from the 
cocoon in one continuous thread which may be several hundred 
yards long. In manufacturmg reeled silk many defective cocoons 
are found in which the fibers are not perfect, or are broken. The 
silk from these cocoons may be treated like a short fiber and spun 
into threads varying in strength according to the length of the 
fibers. This so-called "spun" silk has not the high luster nor 



12 




FIG. 3 




FIG. 4 



13 

strength of ''reeled" silk, but is often used as warp with reeled 
silk filling, or in imitation pongee, and back of satins, velvets and 
in many other ways. 

In olden times the price of silk was much greater than now, 
but the material was much more durable. Silks which have been 
laid away for a hundred years are still in fairly good condition. 
Now our silks are much cheaper, but the result is that when they 
are put away, even for only a few months they may fall into 
bits, and their wearing quality can not be compared with the 
good old silks of long ago. The reason for this change is not 
hard to find. The cost of raw silk is about thirty times that of 
raw cotton and the waste at least five times that of cotton. The 
manufacturer must make up in some way if he is to sell silk at 
the prices demanded by the public. 

Silk has a very great ability to absorb dyes and metallic 
salts without apparently changing the quality of the material, and 
since dyes and metallic salts are much cheaper than pure silk, 
the manufacturer makes great use of these materials. Loading is 
the common name for this process of treating silk and it is com- 
mon practice to add thirty percent of foreign material, just the 
percent lost by the silk when the gum is removed, while it is pos- 
sible to add two hundred fifty or even three hundred percent. 

When we buy novelties and do not care how short their life 
is to be, these heavily weighted silks answer the purpose very 
well, but when we wish for durability and the silk begins to crack 
and split or to become shiny after a few wearings we realize the 
disadvantage of our modern methods. Practically no silk can be 
found on the market entirely free from loading, but there is a 
great dift'erence in the amount present. 

Burning is the simplest test for good silk ; a thread of pure 
silk will burn slowly leaving as it burns a very small amount of 
crisp ash in a ball at the end of the thread. Heavily weighted 
silk burns and leaves the ash in the form of the original thread ; 
this ash of course drops to pieces readily. Fig. 5A shows a piece 
of taffeta sold for one dollar a yard. Fig. 5B shows the result of 
burning the silk. This ash, left in the shape of the original sam- 
ple, is made up of metallic salts, dyestuffs. etc. A very small 
percent of ash would be left from the silk itself. 

Another method of adulterating silk is with cotton. The 
fibers are not spun together here as the cotton and wool, but 
the threads of the two materials are woven together. In satins, 
velvets and brocades the cotton is entirely covered by the silk 
threads on the surface, and appears as the back of the cloth. In 



14 




FIG. 5 



15 

cheap silks a fine cotton thread sometimes forms either warp 
or fining. 

Pongee is a material made from the cocoon of the unculti- 
vated silk worm; rajah, tussah and other uneven, coarse mater- 
ials are from the same source. These silks are very strong, but 
do not have a high luster. Mercerized cotton looks quite silky 
and is sometimes mixed with these silks, or a material of mer- 
cerized cotton and spun silk may he sold for pongee, or even a 
material entirely of mercerized cotton. 

CONCLUSION 

To sum up, the adulterations most likely to be found and 
the tests for them are as follows : 

METHOD OF ADULTERATION 

1. By combination. Use of other fibers than the one indi- 
cated by the name of the material. Example, cotton in woolens, 
cotton in linens, etc. 

2. By substitution. Selling one fiber under the name of an 
entirely different one. Example, mercerized cotton sold for silk 
or linen. 

3. By increasing the weight of a material, a. Cottons and 
linens with starch ; b, silks with metallic salts and dyes. 

4. By giving a finish which is deceptive, a. Heavy pressing 
or calendering an ordinary cotton to imitate mercerizing ; b, fin- 
ishing cotton to look like linen ; c, printing paste dots on cotton 
to produce the effect of embroidered dotted swiss. 

5. By use of made-over yarns. Example, shoddv in wool- 
ens, also addition of short wool, felted in surface. 

TESTS FOR ADULTERATION 

1. Examination of cloth to see if all threads are alike, and 
to distinguish kind of thread. 

2. Examination of individual threads. 

Cotton : short fibers, ends appear fuzzy in thread. 

Wool : short fibers, decidedly kinky and stiff. 

Silk: long straight fibers with luster; if spun silk, fibers 

short ; thread looks more like cotton ; breaks more 

easily than reeled silk. 



i6 

Linen : strong threads ; high luster ; when broken, ends 
very uneven and straight. 

3. Burning tests : a. Cotton burns quickly with flame ; b, 
wool burns slowly, chars, gives off odor of burnt feathers ; c, silk 
burns slowly, leaves small crisp ash, and when weighted leaves 
more ash ; d, linen, similar to cotton. 

4. Linen if without much starch, becomes translucent when 
treated with olive oil ; cotton remains opaque. 

5. A mixture of cotton and wool when wet, wrinkles more 
than pure wool. 

6. A careful examination of the finish of the material. Ob- 
serve if alike on both sides, if the apparent beauty of the material 
is due to finish or to good quality of material. 

Finally, the best grades of material are generally what they 
seem to be ; although this does not always hold true in silks, nor 
in materials where the effect is more important than the wear- 
ing quality. Expensive broadcloths, worsted suitings, expensive 
table linens, good cottons, do not pose for more than their true 
worth. It is when one turns to novelties, to silks and to inex- 
pensive materials that one needs to be most vigilant. Be sure 
the inexpensive is not cheap, unless you want a material, cheap in 
wearing quality and appearance, as well as in cost. 

OTHER POINTS IN BUYING 

Aside from the question of whether the buyer is getting the 
kind of material she pays for as to character of the fiber, there 
are other things to be considered in chosing textile fabrics. 

The weave affects the appearance and often the wearing 
quality of cloth. A close twill weave makes a firm, durable ma- 
terial, while the loose basket weave gives quite a different effect 
and is frequently lacking in firmness. The satin or sateen weave 
makes a beautiful surface especially in linens or silks, but may 
cover up defects in the hidden threads. Fancy weaves in cotton 
novelties, in shirt waist materials and in fancy mulls, etc., often 
leave loose threads which become soiled easily and may not be as 
attractive after washing. A cloth with a very heavy cross thread 
or filling, and a very fine warp, or vice versa, may split because 
of the great difference in the strength of the threads. 

Sometimes figures are woven in such a way that when the 
cloth is finished each figure has short ends of thread. For ex- 
ample, in w^eaving madras curtain material, the filling thread 
which makes the figure, jumps from one figure to another, and 



17 

after the material leaves the loom the loose threads are cut off 
of the back of the material. Often these short pieces wash out 
or the ends become rough and fuzzy looking. 

In choosing a material from the large variety on the market 
the first thing to be determined is the use to which it is to be put, 
then determint .vhat is appropriate to that use. The cloth which 
is suitable for a street suit is obviously not suited to the party 
gown, neither are laces of dressy waists appropriate for working 
clothes. Clothes that are to be worn constantly need to be of 
material that will stand frequent cleaning. In materials used in 
house furnishing certain ones must be cleaned often, and unless 
one can afford to pay frequent cleaner's bills, washable mater- 
ials are better for curtains, bed-spreads, table-covers, etc. The 
cost is the next point to be considered, and that must necessarily 
be determined by one's purse. It is not always economy, how- 
ever, to buy the inexpensive things, for as we have seen the in- 
expensive articles are more likely to be the cheap ones. With our 
desire for continual change, our love of novelty and fad we have 
become very extravagant. So long as the fashion demands new 
garments every few months and women attempt to follow the 
styles, they must choose inexpensive materials unless they have a 
large amount of money, and care nothing for wearing quality. 
In the end, however, the woman who buys carefully, makes use 
of conservative styles which do not change every few months, 
chooses handsome material, is not only more economically, but 
also usually better dressed. 

The hygienic properties of materials should be carefully 
considered. Those next the body should be able to care for the 
perspiration and the excretions of the skin. Woolen and silk are 
best suited by their physical structure to do this, but wool is too 
warm and too irritating to many people, and does not wash well, 
while silk is too expensive. Many kinds of cotton underwear 
have been manufactured which by their structure aid in absorbing 
moisture. Underwear knitted or woven with meshes containing 
large enclosed air spaces is more hygienic than closely woven 
cotton garments. The air spaces in the mesh material are non- 
conductors of heat, and also ventilators. The closely woven gar- 
ment does not allow a change of air next the skin and becomes 
clammy when moist. Garments which come in contact with the 
outside air must be more closely woven to keep out the wind. 
Two layers of lighter weight material are warmer than one layer 
•of thick because of the non-conducting air between. Heavy clothes 



are bad for the body because of the extra load which must be 
carried about. 

Finally, in choosing materials if one is to have the greatest 
pleasure from them and give one's friends the greatest pleasure, 
color and design are very important. Colors should be suitable 
to the use, and to the person who is to wear the material. Bright 
colors make one conspicuous, and are exciting; dull ugly colors 
are depressing, while soft rich colors are elegant, becoming, and 
in good taste. 

Designs should fit the place in which they are to be used. 
Rugs should be so designed that they serve as a background to 
the furniture of the room as well as add richness in color and 
some variety. Materials which are to hang in folds should have 
designs which do not depend on smoothness of surface in order 
that they may be effective. For clothing, designs should be in- 
conspicuous, modest stripes, dots and plaids being most success- 
ful, except on very soft thin materials when larger and less con- 
ventional designs may be used. 

To be an intelligent buyer it is necessary then that the wo- 
man know before she purchases a piece of cloth just where it is 
to be used, just what she can afford to pay for it, what she should 
be able to get for that amount of money and then be able to tell 
whether the piece of cloth she buys is really what it is represented 
to be. At the present time the rush to the bargain counter, the 
enormous amount of cheap, poor material manufactured, and 
the great waste in dress, all go to prove that there are many wo- 
men who are not intelligent buyers. 

When women demand a better quality of materials and re- 
fuse to buy the cheap things, the manufacturers will cease to 
produce worthless things. Perhaps however, before that day ar- 
rives the thoughtful workers of the land will have succeeded in 
passing a pure textile law, which shall do for our cloth what the 
pure food act is doing for our food supplies, then the honest 
though ignorant buyer will be protected, but it will still be her 
part to demand good, artistic and useful materials. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

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LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 



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